The Art of Ivory Carving: A Journey Through China's "Royal Craft"

The Art of Ivory Carving: A Journey Through China’s “Royal Craft”
牙雕藝術：中國「皇家工藝」之旅

Prologue: Standing on Tradition
序言：立於傳統之上

As the renowned writer Lin Xuanqing once reflected, “One stands on tradition to gain depth of soul.” For Chinese people, being rooted in one’s culture is profoundly important. While history quietly passes, it bequeaths to later generations various historic sites, traditional crafts, and national spirit—these are history’s vessels and its most eloquent spokespersons.

正如作家林清玄曾感言：「人站在傳統上，內心才會深刻。」對於中國人而言，根植於自身的文化至關重要。歷史悄然流逝，卻為後世留下了各種名勝古蹟、傳統工藝和民族精神——這些是歷史的載體，也是其最有力的代言者。

Today, many traditional crafts still face the dilemma of decline and potential loss. Yet, there are those who, like steadfast oxen, silently persevere and cultivate culture and traditions that have been passed down for millennia.

時至今日，許多傳統工藝仍面臨衰落與失傳的困境。但仍有一群人，宛如堅韌的耕牛，默默地堅守與耕耘那些已流傳千年的文化與傳統。

Today, we turn our attention to a folk art teetering on the brink of being lost—Ivory Carving.

今天，我們要關注的，是一門瀕臨失傳的民間藝術——牙雕。

A “Royal Craft” Facing Modern Challenges
面臨現代挑戰的「皇家工藝」

Throughout its evolution over thousands of years, ivory carving has echoed traditional Chinese culture, adding a rich and colorful stroke to the history of traditional handicrafts. Yet, this incredibly important intangible cultural heritage now faces an indescribable predicament.

在千百年的演變中，象牙雕刻與中國傳統文化交相輝映，為傳統手工藝書寫了濃墨重彩的一筆。但就是這項極其重要的非物質文化遺產，如今卻面臨著「難以言喻」的困境。

Ivory carving, as the name suggests, refers to the craft of carving on ivory. Ivory has a fine texture that becomes smooth and lustrous after polishing, making it an exceptional material for craft carving.

牙雕，顧名思義，是指在象牙上進行雕刻的工藝。象牙材質細膩，經過打磨後光潔潤澤，是極佳的工藝雕刻材料。

It is an ancient and magnificently beautiful traditional art. During the Qing Dynasty, it helped usher in a new peak for Chinese traditional craftsmanship and, together with cloisonné, jade carving, carved lacquer, gold-inlaid work, filigree inlay, palace carpets, and Beijing embroidery, became known as one of the “Eight Great Arts of Yanjing” . It is worthy of our understanding and transmission.

它是一門古老且美輪美奐的傳統藝術。在清朝時期，它開創了中國傳統工藝的新巔峰，並與景泰藍、玉雕、雕漆、金漆鑲嵌、花絲鑲嵌、宮毯、京繡合稱為「燕京八絕」。它值得我們去了解，去傳承。

I. Historical Roots: From Neolithic Tools to Imperial Tributes
一、歷史淵源：從新石器工具到皇家貢品

Ivory carving in ancient China was known as the “Royal Craft,” indicating that its works were primarily used as tributes for the imperial court. In fact, the history of ivory carving is very long, beginning in the Neolithic Age.

牙雕在中國古代被稱為「皇家工藝」，由此可見其作品主要供皇家貢品使用。實際上，牙雕的歷史非常悠久，始於新石器時代。

The oldest ivory carvings discovered in China date back approximately 7,000 years, unearthed from the Hemudu Neolithic cultural site in Yuyao, Zhejiang. They are respectively known as the “Double Bird Facing the Sun Ivory Carving” and the “Bird-Shaped Ivory Carving.” These excavated pieces indicate that ivory carving technology was already very mature during the Neolithic period.

國內發現年代最久的象牙雕刻品，是距今約7000年的浙江餘姚河姆渡新石器時代文化遺址出土的「雙鳥朝陽牙雕」和「鳥形牙雕」。這些出土的牙雕作品表明，在新石器時代，象牙雕刻技術已經非常成熟。

Similarly, archaeologists discovered the emergence of inlay ivory carving craftsmanship around 5000 years ago at the Dawenkou cultural site in Shandong. A triangular bone-carved barrel burial object was found there, along with precious artifacts such as ivory combs and ivory beads. Their shapes are peculiar, and their craftsmanship is exquisite, astonishing endlessly.

同樣，考古學家在距今約5000年的山東大汶口文化遺址，發現了象牙鑲嵌工藝的出現。在那裡發現了一個呈三角形的骨雕桶隨葬品，以及象牙梳、象牙珠等珍貴器物。它們造型奇特，工藝精緻，令人驚嘆不已。

Furthermore, historical records reveal that many ancient civilizations have records of creating ivory carvings. For example, in ancient Greece, the famous sculptor Phidias used gold, ivory, and other materials to create statues of Zeus and Athena tens of meters high. These are considered by the world to be the most magnificent and spectacular ivory carved statue works.

不僅如此，歷史記載顯示，世界上文明啟蒙較早的民族，都有過製作象牙雕刻品的記錄。例如，在古希臘時期，著名的雕塑家菲迪亞斯使用黃金、象牙等材料雕刻出高達數十米的宙斯神像和雅典娜神像。這些被世人認為是世界上最為宏偉壯觀的象牙雕刻人像作品。

By the Shang and Zhou periods, about three to four thousand years ago, bronze ware became a symbol of power, and ivory carving was integrated into the decorations on bronzes. Moreover, during the Western Zhou period, ivory carving had already become a formal craft and even received attention from the Zhou royal court. At this time, ivory carving was used to make sacrificial vessels, ritual objects, and royal supplies—its importance is evident.

發展到距今三四千年的商周時期，青銅器成為權力的象徵，而象牙雕刻也融入了青銅器上的紋飾。並且西周時期，象牙雕刻已經成為一種正式的工藝，甚至得到了西周王室的重視。此時的牙雕被用於製作祭祀器、禮器以及皇家用品——其重要性可見一斑。

The ivory carvings of the Shang and Zhou periods were more exquisite and beautiful. The most famous examples are the three barrel-shaped cups unearthed from the Tomb of Fu Hao, adorned with vividly carved dragons, phoenixes, tigers, and other animal imagery. Additionally, intricate patterns were carved along the edges.

商周時期的牙雕更加精緻、秀美。最著名的便是在婦好墓出土的三件杯體桶狀牙雕，上面雕刻了栩栩如生的龍、鳳、虎等動物形象。此外，邊緣還雕刻了許多精細的紋飾。

This reveals that during this period, ivory carving craftsmanship already employed techniques such as openwork carving, painting, dyeing, and inlaying.

由此可見，這一時期的象牙雕刻工藝品，在製作上已經採用了鏤空雕刻、彩繪、染色、鑲嵌等工藝手段。

II. Literary Records and Peak Development
二、文獻記載與巔峰發展

Numerous historical texts also contain records of ivory carving. For example, the Records of the Grand Historian: House of Song Weizi records: “King Zhou began using ivory chopsticks.” The Strategies of the Warring States: Strategies of Qi records: “Lord Mengchang, traveling through the state, arrived in Chu and was presented with an ivory bed,” and “an ivory bed is worth a thousand gold.”

眾多歷史文獻中也有關於象牙雕刻的記載。例如，《史記·宋微子世家》記載：「紂始為象箸。」《戰國策·齊策》記載：「孟嘗君出行國，至楚，獻象床」，「象床之值千金」。

This shows that during this historical period, ivory carved artifacts were expensive and could only be afforded by the royal family or nobility. Developing into the prosperous Tang Dynasty, this era was the most flourishing period in Chinese history. Ivory carving craftsmanship, through continuous transmission and innovation by artisans, saw the emergence of dyed carving techniques, making the carved artworks more colorful and enhancing their appreciative value.

由此可見，這一歷史時期的牙雕工藝品價格高昂，只有皇室或貴族才用得起。發展到大唐盛世，這是中國歷史上最為繁榮的時代。牙雕工藝經過工匠不斷的傳承與創新，出現了染色雕刻工藝，這使得雕刻而成的工藝品色彩更加鮮豔，更具欣賞性。

During the Song and Yuan periods, multi-layered concentric balls appeared. Artisans carved层层相套 (céng céng xiāng tào – layers set within each other) and freely rotating multi-layered balls from a single piece of ivory.
宋元時期，出現了多層套球。工匠用完整的一塊象牙雕刻出層層相套、且可自由轉動的多層圓球。

This special technique is still passed down today in the craft circles of Guangdong and is renowned as the “Devil’s Work Ball”.
這項特殊的工藝，至今仍在廣東地区的工藝界傳承，並被譽為「鬼工球」。

The Ming Dynasty text Gegu Yaolun once recorded the Song Dynasty’s “Devil’s Work Ball”: “There was an ivory round ball tube, with a straight hole through the center, containing two inner layers that could both rotate; it was called the Devil’s Work Ball.”
明代《格古要論》一書曾記載宋朝的「鬼工球」：「嘗有象牙圓球筒，中直通竅，內車二重，皆可轉動，謂之鬼工球。」

This shows that ivory carving technology had already reached a state of divine craftsmanship during this period.
由此可見，這一時期的象牙雕刻技術已達鬼斧神工之境。

Indeed, the peak development of ancient Chinese ivory carving technology was during the Ming and Qing periods. During this time, ivory carving patterns shifted from simple flowers, birds, and animals to human figures. Skillful artisans could even carve human expressions vividly onto ivory.
實際上，中國古代牙雕技術發展的巔峰時期是在明清時期。此時，牙雕紋飾從簡單的花鳥動物轉變為人物形象。技藝純熟的工匠甚至能在象牙上將人的神態雕刻得栩栩如生。

During the Qing Dynasty, ivory carving craftsmanship was highly esteemed by the rulers. The Yue Man Qing You Ce (《月曼清遊冊》) stored in the Forbidden City is a famous ivory carving work from Qing history. The ivory carvings from this period are exquisitely complex and inspire endless admiration.
清朝時期，牙雕工藝受到統治者的推崇。故宫所藏的《月曼清遊冊》是清朝著名的牙雕作品。這一時期的牙雕作品精美複雜，讓人讚不絕口。

III. Technical Characteristics and Regional Styles
三、技藝特點與地域風格

The art of ivory carving is divided into four main categories: figures, animals, flowers/plants, and landscapes. Simultaneously, throughout the history of ivory carving, it has been one of the most distinctive. Ivory is very afraid of acid; strong acid can corrode it, while weak acid can soften it. The carving process occurs after it is softened by weak acid, using knives or other tools to carve it.

牙雕藝術分為人物、動物、花草和風景四大類。同時，在牙雕發展史上，它是最具特色的工藝之一。象牙非常怕酸；強酸能將其腐蝕，而弱酸能使其軟化。雕刻過程是在其被弱酸軟化後，用刀或其他工具進行雕刻。

Different regions have distinct characteristics in ivory carving. By the Qing Dynasty, ivory carving production centers had formed primarily in three regions: Beijing, Suzhou, and Guangzhou. Their styles and subjects each had unique characteristics, which are quite astonishing.

不同地區的牙雕具有不同的特點。發展到清朝時期，象牙雕刻形成了以北京、蘇州、廣州三地為中心的生產地，它們的風格與題材各具特色，令人驚嘆。

Beijing Ivory Carving: During the Qing Dynasty, Beijing, as the capital, was home to a majority of wealthy families. Consequently, the Beijing ivory carving market primarily catered to bureaucrats and the imperial palace. Therefore, the style of Beijing ivory carving is relatively luxurious and exquisite. Furthermore, Beijing ivory carving is exceptionally skilled at carving figures, resulting in vivid characters, exceptionally refined carving craftsmanship, and simple yet elegant forms.
北京牙雕： 清朝時期，北京作為首都，富貴人家居多。因此，北京的牙雕市場主要面向官僚和皇宮。所以，北京牙雕的風格較為華麗、精緻。並且，北京牙雕十分擅長雕刻人物，人物生動形象，雕刻工藝分外精細，造型古樸典雅。
Suzhou Ivory Carving: Historically, Suzhou’s arts and crafts level was extremely high, and the production of Suzhou ivory carving is quite refined. Its overall style is relatively mellow and elegant, with a quite distant artistic conception, giving a feeling of tranquility and comfort. During the ivory carving process, artisans mostly used low relief carving(浅浮雕), intaglio(阴刻), full round carving(圆雕), and high relief carving, making the works smoother and brighter. The subjects of Suzhou ivory carving are mostly flowers, plants, birds, and animals, focusing on expressing artistic conception, possessing a simple, elegant, and beautiful style.
蘇州牙雕： 歷史上蘇州的工藝美術水平極高，蘇州牙雕的製作也頗為精細。其總體風格較為醇厚典雅，意境也頗為疏遠，給人靜謐舒適的感受。在象牙的雕刻過程中，工匠大多採用淺浮雕、陰刻、圓雕和高浮雕，使作品更加圓潤光亮。蘇州牙雕的題材多為花草鳥獸，著重表現意境，具有古樸、典雅、秀麗的風範。
Guangzhou (Canton) Ivory Carving: Guangzhou ivory carving has a very long history. Due to its mild climate, Guangzhou’s ivory sculptures are layered with openwork carving, quite delicate and beautiful, yet not easily broken. Additionally, Guangzhou ivory carving technology is exquisite and delicate, with very distinct local characteristics. According to the Guangzhou General Guǎngzhōu Tōngzhì(《廣州通志》): “Suzhou designs, Guangzhou craftsmanship. Fragrant rhinoceros horn, ivory, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, bamboo, wood, vine, tin, and various utensils all lead under heaven.” Whether in scale or craftsmanship, Guangzhou’s ivory carving far surpassed other places.
廣州牙雕： 廣州牙雕的歷史非常悠久。由於其氣候溫和，廣州的象牙雕塑層層雕刻鏤空，頗為纖細精美，又不易破碎。此外，廣州象牙雕刻技術精湛細膩，地方特色十分鮮明。根據《廣州通志》記載：「蘇州樣，廣州匠。香犀、象、蜃、玳瑁、竹、木、藤、錫諸器俱甲天下。」無論是在規模還是工藝水平上，廣州的牙雕都遠遠超過其他地方。

IV. Current Challenges and Innovative Inheritance
四、當前挑戰與創新傳承

Although ivory carving is a traditional art full of distinctive national characteristics for the Chinese nation, it faces the dilemma of potentially disappearing. This includes the ban on ivory trade, which has led to a critical shortage of raw ivory materials. This has plunged the domestic ivory carving craft, which relies entirely on imported raw ivory, into a significant predicament.

儘管牙雕是中華民族極具特色的傳統藝術，但它面臨著可能消失的困境。這包括對象牙貿易的禁令，導致象牙原材料嚴重短缺。這使得完全依賴進口象牙原材料的中國象牙雕刻工藝陷入了巨大的困境。

On one hand, there is insufficient raw material; on the other hand, fewer and fewer young people are willing to enter this industry. Although ivory handicrafts are now worth a fortune, the situation they face is extremely dangerous.

一方面原材料不足；另一方面，越來越少的年輕人願意進入這個行業。儘管如今象牙工藝品價值不菲，但它們面臨的處境極其危險。

In reality, this situation is extremely frustrating for all ivory carving artisans. When people mention ivory, the first things that come to mind are trade, smuggling, and the killing for money.

實際上，這種現狀對所有象牙雕刻工匠來說是極度無奈的。當人們提到象牙，首先想到的是買賣與走私，以及為金錢而進行的殺戮。

However, in reality, the source of materials for ivory carving is not associated with that. Taking the Beijing Ivory Carving Factory as an example, the ivory they use is all from legal national materials. The ivory from naturally deceased elephants each year is already sufficient for the transmission of ivory carving skills. The artisans’ exquisite skill in ivory carving technology is, in my opinion, another continuation of the life of elephants that died naturally. The cultural connotation of ivory carving is unparalleled.

但實際上，牙雕材料的來源與之並無關聯。以北京市象牙雕刻廠為例，他們使用的象牙都是國家合法材料。每年自然死亡大象的象牙，已經足夠牙雕技藝的傳承。在我看來，工匠對象牙雕刻技術的巧奪天工，是對自然死亡大象生命的另一種延續。牙雕的文化內涵是無與倫比的。

The path of transmission for ivory carving is extremely bumpy, yet innovation in the art of ivory carving remains a long-term task. Artisans have demonstrated through practice that using mammoth ivory to create ivory carvings shows little difference from African ivory in terms of color, shape, texture, carving difficulty, and artistic expression.

牙雕的傳承之路極其坎坷，然而對牙雕藝術的創新仍是一項長期任務。工匠通過實踐證明，用猛獁象牙製作牙雕，在色澤、形狀、紋理、雕刻難度和藝術表現力上，與非洲象牙並沒有太大區別。

Fortunately, the emergence of mammoth ivory carving has allowed the millennia-old ivory carving craft of the Chinese nation to be passed down. However, mammoth ivory is non-renewable. The path of innovation for future ivory carving artisans continues.

幸虧猛獁牙雕的出現，才得以讓中華民族千年的牙雕工藝傳承下去。但是，猛獁象牙不可再生。未來牙雕工匠的創新之路仍在繼續。

Modern Adaptations and the Road Ahead
現代適應與未來之路

In the face of a ban on modern ivory trade, the inheritance of ivory carving craftsmanship has sought new paths. As early as the 1990s, protection units and inheritors of Guangzhou ivory carving began using alternative materials for creation and skill transmission. For instance, mammoth ivory (from extinct prehistoric elephants) and ox bone have become important alternative materials. Master Zhang Minhui, a national-level inheritor of Guangzhou ivory carving, created an over-two-meter-long ivory ship using mammoth ivory, carved with 11 layers of pavilions, over 3,000 figures in different poses, over 200 openable windows, and over 100 wind bells that move with the wind—a breathtaking achievement.

面對現代象牙貿易的禁令，牙雕工藝的傳承尋找到了新的路徑。早在20世紀90年代，廣州牙雕的保護單位和傳承人就開始使用替代材料進行創作和技藝傳承。例如，猛獁象牙（來自已滅絕的史前猛獁象）和牛骨成為重要的替代材料。國家級廣州牙雕傳承人張民輝大師使用猛獁象牙創作了一艘長逾兩米的象牙船，雕刻了11層亭台樓閣、3000多個形態各異的人物、200多扇可開啟的窗戶和100多個遇風即動的風鈴——堪稱令人嘆為觀止的成就。

Furthermore, exhibitions and cultural exchanges play a vital role in raising public awareness and understanding of the cultural value of ivory carving. For example, the “Divine Crafts: Guangzhou Ivory Carving Exhibition” showcased about 200 pieces/ sets, comprehensively presenting the development history, artistic characteristics, and technical skills of Guangzhou ivory carving to the public.

此外，展覽和文化交流在提高公眾對牙雕文化價值的認識和理解方面發揮著至關重要的作用。例如，「仙工神品——廣州象牙雕刻展」展出了約200件/套展品，向公眾全面展示了廣州牙雕的發展歷史、藝術特色和工藝技巧[citation:4。

Epilogue: The Unfading Brilliance of a Cultural Pearl
結語：文化明珠，永恆光彩

The art of ivory carving, throughout China’s thousands of years of historical ups and downs, has become a bright and shining pearl in traditional Chinese culture. It relies on the hard work of ancient and modern artisans and also contains the connotations of Chinese civilization. Ivory carving should not be buried.

牙雕藝術在中國數千年的歷史起伏中，已成為中國傳統文化中一顆璀璨的明珠。它依靠古今工匠的辛勤耕耘，同時也蘊含著中華文明的內涵。牙雕不應該被埋沒。

With the development of the times, social progress, and the degree of human understanding of civilization, people are paying more and more attention to the harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. After experiencing the protection of natural animals and the transmission of intangible cultural heritage, the development of ivory carving continues.

隨著時代的發展、社會的進步以及人類對文明的認知程度，人們越來越重視人與自然的和諧相處。在經歷了自然動物保護和非物質文化遺產的傳承後，牙雕的發展仍在繼續。

In reality, any excellent traditional craft should not remain stagnant. Only by constantly maintaining innovation and transmission can it leave its mark in the current era.

實際上，任何一門優秀的傳統工藝都不應該停滯不前。只有時刻保持創新與傳承，才能在當今時代留下足跡。

Ivory carving embodies not only the wisdom crystallization of ancient and modern artisans but also showcases the excellent national culture of China. Ivory carving is a treasure of ancient Chinese craftsmanship; it is worthy of our understanding and transmission.

牙雕凝聚的不僅是古今工匠的智慧結晶，也展現了中國優秀的民族文化。牙雕是中國古代工藝的瑰寶；它值得我們去了解，去傳承。

The Art of Ivory Carving: A Journey Through China’s “Royal Craft”